High-Temperature Geothermal Power

Geothermal power is abundant, constant and relatively cheap to tap. There is enormous potential in seismically active regions like British Columbia to derive enormous amounts of energy from high temperature geothermal sources.

Image Source: Wikipedia

High Temperature Geothermal

By the Numbers

860 million gigajoules

High-temp geothermal energy created in earth's crust every year

30°C/km

Average rate at which temperature increases as you go deeper into the earth's crust

80%

Of Iceland's electricity provided by geothermal power

$80/MW

Average price of high-temp geothermal power, cheaper than wind, nuclear or solar

0

High-temp geothermal power plants in Canada

Last Updated: May 2012

Charlotte Helston

High-temperature geothermal power holds the promise of providing large quantities of cheap, carbon-light energy without the intermittency or land use issues that make other renewables like wind and solar problematic.

The heat for geothermal power comes from ongoing radioactive decay and primordial heat left over from the formation of the earth billions of years ago. The energy can be tapped anywhere on the earth's surface, though volcanically active regions make much more convenient access points to this underground heat.

A number of technologies have existed for almost a century to extract this virtually inexhaustible source of power, and today many countries in the world are investing heavily in developing high-temperature geothermal plants. Iceland, for instance, gets almost 80% of its electricity from geothermal power. Countries around the Pacific Rim are especially well placed geographically for high-temperature geothermal power, and the United States, Indonesia and the Philippines are world leaders in this field.

Oddly, British Columbia and Canada have no high-temperature geothermal power plants despite their proximity to the Pacific Ring of Fire. So far, all plans for development have become bogged down in permitting procedures and land use issues.

There are of course drawbacks to high-temperature geothermal power. The controversial practice of fracking is needed to access underground reservoirs of heat and it is suspected that this can potentially cause earthquakes.

Nevertheless many nearby countries continue to press ahead with this high-potential energy source, while British Columbia continues to have a moratorium on geothermal power development.

How High-temperature Geothermal Works

How High-Temperature Geothermal Energy is Created

Geothermal energy arises from two primary sources: radioactive decay, and primordial heat created by compression during the original formation of the earth around 4.6 billion years ago.

Mount Saint Helen's
Mount Saint Helen's, in Washington State, erupting in 1980. An extreme example of the power of primordial heat.

Radioactive Decay: The decay of naturally-occurring radioactive species of elements, such as uranium-235 and thorium-232, in the ground below us, results in the generation of 860,000,000,000 gigajoules per year of heat. This process is what continually replenishes geothermal energy. If the average Canadian home used 100 gigajoules of energy a year, radioactive decay could provide approximately 8.6 billion homes with energy for a year. In fact, the earth’s interior has only decreased by a few hundred degrees over its lifetime of 4.6 billion years. This is due to the continual energy generated by radioactive decay and a well insulated core.

Primordial Heat: Primordial heat, as the name implies, has existed since the creation of the earth 4.6 billion years ago when the energy and mass from colliding cosmic matter produced a planet. This smoldering piece of space debris began to cool from the outside in, creating the hardened "crust" upon which life and civilization was born. The solid outer layer acts as the cast-iron of the wood-stove, insulating and containing heat.

This primordial heat continues to flow from the earth's interior to its surface. This can occur through slow conduction through solid rock, and convective heat transport in areas with fluid interaction, such as water or magma. Much of this heat activity goes unnoticed by humans. It can also occur catastrophically, however, in the form of volcanic activity: Mount St. Helen's eruption in 1980 is a prominent nearby example.

How do we Extract Geothermal Energy?

Geothermal energy is dependent on four things: A large source of heat, a reservoir to contain the heat, a barrier to lock it in, and a fluid to carry and transfer the heat

We know from the previous section that geothermal heat is produced in two ways; from radioactive decay, and from the primordial heat of the earth's core.

Let's look at the second and third requirements: a reservoir and a barrier.

Reservoirs are permeable, hot rock units, that, when surrounded by impermeable rock layers (the barrier), act as heat-storage containers. Geothermal reservoirs can be structurally similar to the reservoirs of oil and gas reserves.

Geothermal Resources

Extraction of geothermal resources is conducted by drilling into these reservoirs. Sometimes, if the rock is porous, hot water is ready-made and waiting. This is known as a Conventional Hydrothermal Geothermal Resource. These sites are located in areas where magma has poked through the continental crust, creating convective circulation of groundwater. In the past, hydrothermal reservoirs have been the most common and economically feasible geothermal resources.

Other times, drillers find hot rock, but no water. In this latter scenario, a second well is drilled adjacent to the first. Water is injected down the new well and collected, once it has been heated, from the first well. This is known as an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), the anticipated future of geothermal energy. A second function of the fluid injection is known as hydraulic fracturing, which creates and opens up cracks to maximize on heat extraction. The enhancement in permeability due to fracturing, combined with the ability to strike deeper and transfer heat to the surface with injected water, allows for much wider-scale applications of geothermal technology. No longer do developers have to stay within the limitations of hydrothermal reservoirs. In theory, EGS means that geothermal resources can be tapped anywhere in the world. Economically, however, favourable projects are still limited by site accessibility and geographical conditions such as elevated heat flow and abundant water resources for fracturing.

Hydraulic Fractures

How do we use High-temperature Geothermal Energy?

Geothermal resources are used either for direct heating or for generating electricity.

Direct use systems use heat from low-temperature resources between 50°C and 150°C. The components of a direct use heat system are a source of heat (such as a well), a method of transportation from the ground to buildings (piping) and a disposal system (possibly reinjection of fluid into the well or a storage pond). Direct heating can, and does, provide heat for residential and industrial facilities. It is also often employed in commercial applications, such as greenhouses, fish farms and food processing facilities. Direct use heating systems also encompass on-site low-temperature geoexchange systems.

Electricity generation is achieved through the use of geothermal steam to drive turbines, which in turn power electric generators.

There are three geothermal power plant technologies being used to convert hydrothermal fluids to electricity. They include:

1. Dry Steam Power Plants:

This technology uses hydrothermal fluids (primarily steam) to directly drive a turbine, which then powers a generator that produces electricity. This is the oldest type of geothermal power plant, first used at Lardarello, Italy, in 1904. The Lardarello facility is still in operation today.

Dry Steam techniques are used at the Geysers in northern California, the world's largest single source of geothermal power to date.

2) Flash Steam Power Plants:

Hydrothermal fluids above 182 C are sprayed into tanks held at considerably lower pressure than the fluid, causing some of the liquid to rapidly vaporize, or "flash". The vapour is then used to drive a turbine, which then drives a generator, thus creating electricity. Remaining liquid can be flashed a second time to extract as much energy as possible (and also eliminating wastewater).

3) Binary-Cycle (such as Organic Rankine) Power Plants

This technology involves two fluids: hot geothermal water and a second "working fluid" with a lower boiling point than water. Heat is exchanged between the two fluids, and the working fluid (usually a hydrocarbon like isobutane or pentane) boils and vaporizes. The "flash" of vapour drives a turbine which generates electricity and heat. The system is based on two closed loops; both the water and the working fluid are re-injected into the cycle.

  1. Rybach, Ladislaus. ‘Geothermal Sustainability.’ GHC Bulletin, September 2007,p 2-7. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull28-3/art2.pdf
  2. Natural Resources Canada. ‘2007 Survey of Household Energy Use— Supplemental Report.’ Energy Publications (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/statistics/sheu-euiod07/pdf/sheu-euiod07.pdf
  3. Canadian Geothermal Energy Association (CanGEA). Full listing of Canadian Projects. Retrieved July 21, 2011 at: http://www.cangea.ca/projects.
  4. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf .
  5. Rand 2010.
  6. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  7. Holroyd, Peggy and Jennifer Dagg. ‘Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT.’ The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/building-a-regulatory-framework-for-geothermal-in-the-nwt.pdf.
  8. US Department of Energy. ‘Hydrothermal Power Systems.’ Geothermal Technologies Program. Last modified February 22, 2012. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/powerplants.html#dry.
  9. US Department of Energy. ‘Hydrothermal Power Systems.’ Geothermal Technologies Program. Last modified February 22, 2012. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/powerplants.html#dry.
  10. US Department of Energy. ‘Hydrothermal Power Systems.’ Geothermal Technologies Program. Last modified February 22, 2012. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/powerplants.html#dry.

Geography of High-Temperature Geothermal

Geothermal energy exists beneath all continents and oceans; however, the heat distribution is not uniform. Rather, the earth is made up of cooler regions and hotspots, like the Pacific Ring of Fire, where a flurry of tectonic activity allows heat to rise to the surface. Hot springs, steaming ground, fumaroles, mud-pools, and geysers are all indicators of rich geothermal resources beneath the ground.

Heat Gradient
A diagram showing the Geothermal Gradient of the earth, explaining how the deeper one goes into the earth, the hotter it becomes.

On a large scale, the intensity of this thermal energy increases with depth; the closer we get to earth's core (which is approximately 5000°C) the hotter it gets. A global average for earth's geothermal gradient is about 30°C/km. Geothermal resources are located in areas with greatly elevated gradients, sometimes as much as 100 C/km. In the absence of geothermal gradient data, developers often look to the geology of the area for hints on the underground potential. Hydrothermal systems, for instance, are typically bedded in young volcanic rock, while Enhanced Geothermal systems have good potential in hot sedimentary aquifers and intrusive rocks where radioactive decay enriches heat generation.

  1. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf

Economics

Once a geothermal system is in place, and operating sustainably, geothermal heat is always available. Oil, gas, coal — these are finite resources. Solar, wind, wave — these are dependent upon the weather. Geothermal provides a predominantly carbon-free, secure, and continuous source of energy. Furthermore, it has one of the lowest levelized unit costs of any energy type.

Geothermal power requires no fuel except for pumps, and is therefore immune to fuel cost fluctuations. Capital costs are significant, sometimes up to $4 million per MW, depending on the size of the power plant, and the surrounding geography. Drilling accounts for over half the costs, and exploration of deep resources entails significant risks. The substantial up-front costs of drilling are risky; after spending millions on exploration, resources may be unfit for exploitation.

Once running, though, the high capital costs are neutralized by miniscule fuel costs and low operation and maintenance costs over the facility's lifetime.

The Geothermal Energy Association, referencing a 2007 report by the California Energy Commission, estimates the generation costs for a 50 MW geothermal binary plant at $92/MWh and $88/MWh for a 50 MW dual flash geothermal plant, which over the lifetime of the plant can be competitive with a variety of technologies, including natural gas. According to the California Energy Commission, natural gas costs $101/MWh for a 500 MW combined cycle power plant and $586/MWh for a 100 MW steam plant.

Economics of Geothermal
Graph comparing the cost of different energies. Study conducted by the Geothermal Energy Association.

Erecting transmission lines where they do not previously exist poses another financial challenge. Roughly, 1 km of transmission costs $1 million, and 1 km of transmission can be necessary for every MW of power generation. With most geothermal sites located in remote areas, quite often accessed by logging roads, the costs of building transmission lines can add significantly to the up front costs.

Job Opportunities

The Canadian Geothermal Energy Association claims that tapping into our country's geothermal resources could create up to 9,000 permanent jobs, as well as 30,000 manufacturing and construction jobs nationwide. More site-specifically, the Clean Energy Association of BC estimates the South Meager Geothermal plant, if developed, would employ between 3-40 people in full time positions. Temporary jobs emerging from the construction of the plant, substations, transmission line and other facilities, could employ 250-350 personnel over an estimated two-year construction period.

Export Potential

Iceland, whose geothermal energy developments already supply at least 81% of the country's electricity, has announced plans to export geothermal energy to other European nations by channeling it under the ocean. The plan proposes to construct a giant cable that would lie on the seabed and transmit as much as 5 billion kWh/y of electricity, powering a potential 1.25 million houses. Learn more here.

  1. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  2. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  3. Clean Energy Association of BC. Geothermal power fact sheet. Vancouver, Canada. Retrieved at: http://www.cleanenergybc.org//media/CEBC_FS-Geothermal_web.pdf.

Environmental Impacts

Geothermal energy production can be considered a renewable resource, under specific conditions.

In his book Sustainable Energy — without the hot air, David MacKay uses the metaphor of a straw and a crushed ice drink to explain the concept of, as he puts it, "sustainable sucking" in geothermal energy extraction.

The Analogy

A straw inserted into the beverage represents the well we drill to reach the geothermal reservoir. If we slurp up the liquid at a rate faster than it can replenish itself, we are sucking unsustainably.

"Sucking" heat energy in conventional hydrothermal resources at the natural rate heat escapes anyway, would indeed be sustainable.

Using Enhanced Geothermal Systems to pump water into previously dry, hot rock units, would also be sustainable so long as the rocks were given time to "recover" and heat back up before more liquid is injected. Sarah Kimball furthers this argument: "If economic exploitation of geothermal fluids exceeds the natural replenishment rate there may be depletion in the heat and/or fluid content of the reservoir."

Pollutants and Emissions

It must be understood that natural geothermal features, such as fumaroles, as well as human developed geothermal wells, emit carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrogen and methane. In comparison to other energy sources, however, these emissions are negligible. Fewer nitrogen and sulfur emissions mean less acid rain, and reduced CO2 emissions mean a more stable ozone layer. The BC Sustainable Energy Association remarks that a 100 MW geothermal plant will reduce CO2 emissions by 600,000 tonnes a year, and nitrogen and sulfide emissions by 120,000 tonnes annually compared to a natural gas plant of equal size.

Geothermal energy ranks the lowest in an analysis of CO2 emissions from coal, petroleum and natural gas. On the high end was coal (990 kg/MWh), contrasted by geothermal at 0.48 kg/MWh.

Fumarole
A fumarole at Halema'uma'u crater in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.

Land and Water Use Issues

In a geothermal power plant, much of the activity occurs underground, which reduces its land-use impact substantially. Studies have placed geothermal's land requirements at 1.0 to 13.9 km2 per TeraWatt hour per year. This compares with 27.5 to 99.3km2/TWhr/yr for oil.

Cooling is a necessary step in the geothermal power conversion process. In order to condense the vapour feeding the turbine, a cooling mechanism must be employed. Cooling towers also safeguard against possible overheating of turbines. There are two types of cooling systems in use today: water cooling and air cooling. Most geothermal power plants — in fact most power plants in general — use water cooling systems. A geothermal steam power plant may consume as much as 5,300 litres/MWhr (though it may withdraw as much as 7,570 litres). Dry cooling systems can reduce water consumption to nearly nothing, though they can cost up to 10 times more than their wet counterparts.

Geothermal fluids can contain high levels of arsenic, mercury, lithium and boron due to contact with the high temperature rocks in depth. If this waste-water is not disposed of properly, it could leech into lakes and rivers where ecosystems and safe drinking water can be damaged. To avoid contamination of surrounding water systems, the waste water is usually pumped back into the geothermal reservoir where it can help replenish the system.

Land subsidence is another land issue being raised by residents near geothermal developments. Subsidence describes the slow sinking of land, which has been linked in some areas to geothermal plants. This is from the geothermal reservoir decreasing in pressure as the fluid is pumped out. The largest known case of subsidence was Wairakei, New Zealand where the centre of the subsidence was 14 meters lower than initially and was sinking at a half a meter a year.

Potential Risks

Hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking", is employed to open up hot, dry rock reservoirs in Enhanced Geothermal Systems. Fracking has earned a poor reputation in recent years, because the oil and gas industry is known to mix toxic additives into the water, which then seep out into surrounding areas, polluting aquifers and poisoning wildlife, livestock, and humans. Oil and gas wells may be fracked up to 17 times, with each injection utilizing as much as 18 million litres of water, the waste of which is pumped into disposal wells.

Geothermal fracking is not reported to use any dangerous additives, however, it presents another concern: induced seismicity.

Because the best geothermal resources are found in areas of high tectonic activity, earthquakes, and the possibility that they could be sparked by drilling and fracking, must be considered.

High pressure injections and trickling wastewater open up and lubricate old fault lines, allowing them to shift and trigger earthquakes. In a 2009 speech, Calgary geologist Jack Century, president of J.R. Century Petroleum Consultants Ltd., explained that the human activity of altering the amount of fluid in the earth, changes the pressure where fault-lines exist, causing them to move.

A geothermal project in Basel, Switzerland in 2006 triggered a 3.4 Richter Scale earthquake that damaged buildings in the surrounding area.

A geothermal project in Basel, Switzerland in 2006 triggered a 3.4 Richter Scale earthquake that damaged buildings in the surrounding area. Read more about it here.

It's hard to know if geothermal development in a given area will result in induced seismicity. A good indicator is the region's history. There is no question, however, that once an earthquake is "turned on", there is no way to turn it off. Are the potential hazards of induced seismicity worth the availability of clean, renewable energy? The impacts of earthquakes can be treacherous, from devastated infrastructure to damaged wildlife habitats.

It is important to note that the risks of hydraulic fracturing are already a reality in the oil and gas industry. Some might say if we're going to "frack", we may as well do it in the name of clean, renewable energy. For examples of earthquakes induced by fracking in Canada and the United States, see this article from the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.

Other Concerns

As with all energy resources, it is essential to consider the land in direct use, as well as the surrounding area affected by the activity. In the case of the Mount Meager site, it is important to think about the impacts such development would have on the Upper Lillooet Provincial Park — its natural landscape and wildlife. Noise pollution remains an unavoidable by-product of geothermal construction projects that could affect animal populations.

However negative some of geothermal's effects may be, they are in no way unique to this type of energy resource. Oil, natural gas, and coal all account for massive habitat destruction, noise pollution, and shrunken nature reserves, not to mention greenhouse gas emissions.

  1. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  2. Cowan, Jamie. ‘Geothermal Power.’ Written for the BC Sustainable Energy Association. (2005). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.bcsea.org/learn/get-the-facts/renewable-energy-technologies/geothermal-power.
  3. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  4. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  5. Glennon, R., and A. Reeves. ‘Solar energy's cloudy future.’ Arizona Journal of Environmental Law & Policy. Vol 1:1 (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1722241
  6. Mendrinos, D., E. Kontoleontos, and C. Karystas. ‘Geothermal binary plants: Water or air cooled?’ Centre for Renewable Energy Sources. Greece. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.lowbin.eu/public/CRES-GeothermalBinaryPlants-Water%20or%20Air%20Cooled.pdf
  7. Kagel, Alyssa. ‘The state of geothermal technology.’Publication by the Geothermal Energy Association for the U.S. Department of Energy. (2007). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.geo-energy.org/reports/Geothermal%20Technology%20-%20Part%20II%20(Surface).pdf
  8. Nelson, Joyce. ‘Big fracking problem.’ Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.policyalternatives.ca/publications/monitor/big-fracking-problem

Social and Political Considerations

Canada has been slow to advance development of known geothermal resources. It wasn't until March, 2004, that the BC government began accepting bids from companies proposing to develop geothermal resources in the Meager Creek and Kinbasket Lake regions. In June 2004, the BC government approved drilling permits for two deep production wells to assess the commercial viability at Meager Creek. At that time, the lease went to Western GeoPower, but it has since changed hands and is now held by American corporation Ram Power.

Ram Power has expressed that the Mount Meager site is a low priority and has not displayed efforts to develop it. When (if) they do, it is likely that the overall project plan will remain similar to that outlined by Western GeoPower in 2004. The project facilities described by the Meager Creek Development Corporation (a subsidiary of Western GeoPower) in a 2004 document list the following facilities: production and injection wells, fluid gathering and injection systems, the actual power plant, and a 230 kV transmission line.

These developments, especially the transmission line, are strongly opposed by local First Nations who see the development as an infringement upon their traditional land rights to the area. The site is mostly set on traditional Lil'wat Nation (Mount Currie Band) territory, but other bands, such as the N'Quatqua First Nations, may be affected as well. The highly contested transmission line would link the Meager power plant to the B.C. Transmission Corporation (BCTC) system. The route preferred by developers runs through the Pemberton Valley, of which a substantial portion belongs to the Lil'wat First Nations. Alternative routes include the 80 km stretch through the Upper Lilouett and Birkenhead Valley, which would tie in to a substation at Poole Creek, and the 80 km route through the Hurley River valley, which would be more costly as it would require an upgrade of BCTC's local line. Both alternatives would use mostly Crown land, aside for some 4-5 km sections of unlogged forest.

According to BC MEMPR Titles Division, geothermal land tenure requests include the following land use types:

  • Parks, protected areas, conservancies, recreation areas, ecological reserves
  • Located within the Muskwa-Kechika Management Area
  • Federal lands including Indian Reserves
  • Areas with existing geothermal or petroleum and natural gas tenure

Geothermal legislation in BC requires that potential parcels of land go through a referral process, during which First Nations, local government and other agencies (such as environmental organizations) are consulted. If approved, an auction is held, and the highest bidder is awarded the tenure. Exploration permits are valid for one year, and can be extended for up to eight years. Permit holders have an obligation to explore resources. Once development plans are submitted for the area, a lease of 20 years is granted, and may subsequently be renewed.

The Geothermal Resources Act of 1982 (which replaced the original legislation of 1973, which was faulty due to an absence of leasing regulation, and too open a definition) defines a geothermal resource as:

The natural heat of the earth and all substance that derive an added value from it, including steam, water and water vapour heated by the natural heat of the earth and all substances dissolved in the steam, water or water vapour obtained from a well, but does not include: a) water that has a temperature less than 80 Degrees Celsius at the point where it reaches the surface, or b) hydrocarbons.

The act does not include control legislation for overdevelopment, such as restrictions on the rate of production to ensure sustainable exploitation.

In 2008, the BC government placed a moratorium on geothermal permitting applications and established a Geothermal Task Force to develop a policy framework to address regulatory and tenure issues. This was in response to a rise in requests for geothermal tenure, combined with complaints about the tenure system. The task force communicated with industry players who urged fiscal incentives for the industry, as well as improved accessibility to Crown lands for exploration. These discussions have had little impact, however, and the government has implemented no major changes to legislation and regulation to date.

In 2008, the BC government placed a moratorium on geothermal permitting applications and established a Geothermal Task Force to develop a policy framework to address regulatory and tenure issues... These discussions have had little impact, however, and the government has implemented no major changes to legislation and regulation to date.

It is uncommon for renewable energy markets to grow and compete with conventional markets without the support of government funding and policy-making. For nearly 25 years, geothermal science has not been funded by the Canadian Federal Government. Other countries have accelerated the development of geothermal projects with Renewable Portfolio Standards and Feed-in-Tariffs. Ontario has paved the way for FIT's in Canada, focusing support on solar power. Though BC, nor any Canadian province, does not yet deploy these tools in support of geothermal development, it is likely that some sort of program will emerge from the Clean Energy Act.

The BC Sustainable Energy Association, under its "Social, Economic & Political Matters" section suggests policy changes here to promote the use of high-temperature geothermal energy in BC.

  1. Burke, David. ‘Slide affecting access to power project sites.’ Question. Whistler and Pemberton news. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.whistlerquestion.com/article/20100812/WHISTLER01/100819998/-1/whistler/slide-affecting-access-to-power-project-sites.
  2. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  3. Holroyd, Peggy and Jennifer Dagg. ‘Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT.’ The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/building-a-regulatory-framework-for-geothermal-in-the-nwt.pdf.
  4. Holroyd, Peggy and Jennifer Dagg. ‘Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT.’ The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/building-a-regulatory-framework-for-geothermal-in-the-nwt.pdf.
  5. Canadian Geothermal Energy Association (CanGEA). ‘What is Geothermal?’ CanGEA. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.cangea.ca/what-is-geothermal/.
  6. Green Energy Task Force 2010.

High-Temperature Geothermal Around the World

Geothermal is being harnessed around the globe, from climatically cool regions like Iceland to tropical ones like Mexico. Worldwide, there are over 10,000 MW of installed capacity electricity generation, and 27,825 MW of direct heat produced from geothermal resources. Electricity production occurs in 24 countries, and direct heating in 72. The United States, the Philippines and Indonesia comprise over half the world's geothermal generating capacity, at 3,903 MW, 1,904 MW, and 1,197 MW respectively. The rest is dominated by Iceland, Mexico, Italy, and Japan.

Iceland Power Station
The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power station in Iceland.

In Iceland, over 81% of the electric power and 95 percent of home heating is produced from steam and hot water that occurs naturally in volcanic rocks. Iceland produces enough geothermal energy to have the highest portion of its energy use provided for by geothermal, but not enough to rank as one of the top global producers in absolute terms. The country of Iceland resides on a highly unique geological foundation ideal for geothermal energy extraction.

  1. Bertani, R. ‘Geothermal power generation in the world 2005-2010 update report.’ Proceedings World Geothermal Congress. Bali, Indonesia. International Geothermal Association. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://geothermie.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/bestanden/IGA/Geothermal_electricity_in_the_world_2010_report_Ruggero_Bertani.pdf
  2. University of California- Riverside.‘Iceland volcano drilling suggests magma could become source of high-grade energy.’ Science Daily. (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110216123545.htm

High-Temperature Geothermal in Canada

Canadian companies develop geothermal electricity in the U.S., yet the resource remains largely untapped this side of the border. Canada is the only country along the Pacific Rim that doesn't have an operating, high-temperature geothermal energy power plant.

Systematic investigation of geothermal resources in Canada commenced in 1973, when the worldwide oil crisis spurred countries to seek alternatives to imported oil. A formal program concluding in 1986, without leading to any major development projects. Momentum didn't pick up again until the early 2000s, when oil prices again began to rise.

Areas in Western Canada display strong prospects for geothermal energy extraction, and there have been extensive studies at Mount Meager, north of Whistler, BC. Electricity was successfully produced there during testing in the past, but as of 2010, the facility was not operational. Further, the site's new lease holders, Ram Power, have indicated that the site is a low priority compared to its other international projects.

Two projects are proposed for construction in the North West Territories. The Fort Liard demonstration project would generate 1 MW of electricity and 1 MWh of heat. The project is a joint venture between Borealis GeoPower and the Acho Dene Koe First Nations of the area. The project has qualified for $10-20 million dollars in funding from the Federal Clean Energy Fund, and Borealis estimates that the plant will be online by 2013.

The Ring of Fire around the Pacific is one of the most seismically active regions in the world and every country around it has built geothermal power plants to take advantage of the geothermal resources. That is, except Canada.

The Con Mine District Heating System in Yellowknife has also qualified for financial support from the Clean Energy Fund ($14.1 million) though a lack of support from city residents in a March 2011 referendum means that locals are unwilling to borrow funds for the project. The proposed heating system would produce 52,000 MWh/yr which could be used to heat nearly 40 commercial buildings in downtown Yellowknife, offsetting ~7.5 million litres of heating oil annually.

A pilot project to test the viability of electricity and heat production through the use of existing oil and gas infrastructure is underway in Swan Hills, Alberta. Various direct heating projects are also in development, including a demonstration for a greenhouse in Chilliwack, BC, and a plastics factory in Springhill, Nova Scotia.

According to the Canadian Geothermal Energy Association, numerous geothermal projects are currently underway. See a full listing of Canadian projects here.

  1. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  2. Holroyd, Peggy and Jennifer Dagg. ‘Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT.’ The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/building-a-regulatory-framework-for-geothermal-in-the-nwt.pdf.
  3. Burke, David. ‘Slide affecting access to power project sites.’ Question. Whistler and Pemberton news. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.whistlerquestion.com/article/20100812/WHISTLER01/100819998/-1/whistler/slide-affecting-access-to-power-project-sites.
  4. Holroyd, Peggy and Jennifer Dagg. ‘Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT.’ The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/building-a-regulatory-framework-for-geothermal-in-the-nwt.pdf.
  5. Holroyd, Peggy and Jennifer Dagg. ‘Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT.’ The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/building-a-regulatory-framework-for-geothermal-in-the-nwt.pdf.
  6. Holroyd, Peggy and Jennifer Dagg. ‘Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT.’ The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012. http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/building-a-regulatory-framework-for-geothermal-in-the-nwt.pdf.

High-Temperature Geothermal in British Columbia

The numerous hot springs found around the province point to the presence of high heat and energy geothermal deposits. CanGEA, referencing a 2007 study by Dr. Mory Ghomshei from the University of British Columbia, estimates the province's geothermal resources to be between 3,000-5,000 MegaWatts. Currently, the United States, global leader in geothermal energy, produces 3,903 MW from this source.

The Coast Mountains bear Canada's richest potential sources of geothermal energy. Here, just a few kilometers below the earth, magma rises with temperatures of approximately 200-300°C. These reservoirs could be used in heating, or in producing electricity through the use of steam-driven turbines.

A proposal for Mount Meager, 70 km northwest of Pemberton and within the Upper Lillooet Provincial Park at the headwaters of the Lillooet River, might produce enough electricity for over 90,000 households a year, estimates Green Energy BC. In 1975, BC Hydro drilled 18 test holes at Meager Mountain. This work was followed by three deep exploratory wells between 1980 and 1982. Another deep exploratory well was completed by Pacific Geopower in July 1995. South Meager has been classified as a high-temperature geothermal resource area, with exploratory testing wells revealing maximum temperatures up to 270°C. The exploratory wells uncovered relatively low permeability, suggesting low production of geothermal fluids. Potential development capacity sits at an estimated 200 MW. Canadian corporation Western GeoPower held the lease for the Mount Meager site for several years until it was bought by the U.S. company Ram Power in 2009. In comparison to Ram's other developments, Mount Meager seems to be a low priority. Ram Power executive vice-president Dan Schochet has said, "Drilling a well there is a costly proposition — it's on a mountainside and accessed by logging roads. In all honesty, it's probably not going to be anything we develop in the very near future. It's still on our books, we haven't given up hope on it, but we're not doing much in there right now".

North Meager or Pebble Creek, and Mount Cayley and Mount Garibaldi have also been explored. North Meager is likely fed by the same subterranean source as South Meager. It is speculated that North Meager may have more favourable lithology than South Meager, in terms of permeability. In 1977, the federal government drilled five shallow wells at the Mount Cayley site. Evidence of geothermal gradients similar to those at Meager Mountain were found. Preliminary exploration has also occurred at Canoe Reach/Valemount and Knight Inlet/Mount Silverthrone.

Garibaldi Hotspots
Map of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, including the hotspots of Mount Meager, Mount Cayley, and Mount Garibaldi.
  1. BC Citizens for Green Energy. ‘Deep down, B.C.'s a geothermal hotspot.’ Green Energy BC.ca (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.greenenergybc.ca/geo.html
  2. BC Ministry of Energy. ‘Geothermal Questions & Answers.’ Last modified July, 2010. Accessed May 30, 212. http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/TITLES/OGTITLES/GEOTHERMAL/Pages/GeothermalQuestionsandAnswers.aspx
  3. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  4. Cowan, Jamie. ‘Geothermal Power.’ Written for the BC Sustainable Energy Association. (2005). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.bcsea.org/learn/get-the-facts/renewable-energy-technologies/geothermal-power.
  5. Burke, David. ‘Slide affecting access to power project sites.’ Question. Whistler and Pemberton news. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.whistlerquestion.com/article/20100812/WHISTLER01/100819998/-1/whistler/slide-affecting-access-to-power-project-sites.
  6. Kimball, Sarah. ‘Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.’ Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010) Accessed May 30, 2012. http://www.pics.uvic.ca/assets/pdf/publications/kimball_thesis.pdf
  7. BC Ministry of Energy. ‘Geothermal Questions & Answers.’ Last modified July, 2010. Accessed May 30, 212. http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/TITLES/OGTITLES/GEOTHERMAL/Pages/GeothermalQuestionsandAnswers.aspx

Bibliography


To ensure continuity of material, all of the external web pages referenced here were cached in May 2012.

Readers are recommended to explore the current links for any changes.

BC Citizens for Green Energy. ‘Deep down, B.C.'s a geothermal hotspot.’ Green Energy BC.ca (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012.

BC Ministry of Energy. ‘Geothermal Questions & Answers.’ Last modified July, 2010. Accessed May 30, 212.

Bertani, Ruggero. ‘Geothermal power generation in the world 2005-2010 update report.’ Proceedings World Geothermal Congress. Bali, Indonesia. International Geothermal Association. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012. Geothermal power generation in the world 2005-2010 update report.

Burke, David. ‘Slide affecting access to power project sites.’ Question. Whistler and Pemberton news. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012.

Canadian Geothermal Energy Association (CanGEA). ‘What is Geothermal?’ CanGEA. Accessed May 30, 2012.

Clean Energy Association of BC. ‘Geothermal power fact sheet.’ Vancouver, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012.

Cowan, Jamie. ‘Geothermal Power.’ Written for the BC Sustainable Energy Association. (2005). Accessed May 30, 2012.

Glennon, R., and A. Reeves. ‘Solar energy's cloudy future.’ Arizona Journal of Environmental Law & Policy. Vol 1:1 (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012.

Holroyd, Peggy. Dagg, Jennifer. 2011. Building a regulatory framework for geothermal energy development in the NWT. The Pembina Institute. (2011). Alberta, Canada. Accessed May 30, 2012.

Kagel, Alyssa. ‘The state of geothermal technology.’ Publication by the Geothermal Energy Association for the U.S. Department of Energy. (2007). Accessed May 30, 2012.

Kimball, Sarah. 'Favourability Map of British Columbia Geothermal Resources.' Thesis. The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012.

Mendrinos, D., E. Kontoleontos, C. Karystas. Geothermal binary plants: Water or air cooled? Centre for Renewable Energy Sources. Greece. Accessed May 30, 2012.

Natural Resources Canada. ‘2007 Survey of Household Energy Use— Supplemental Report.’ Energy Publications (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012.

Nelson, Joyce. Big fracking problem. Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012.

Rand 2010.

Rybach, L (2007). 'Geothermal Sustainability.' GHC Bulletin, September, pg 2-7. Accessed May 30, 2012.

University of California- Riverside. Iceland volcano drilling suggests magma could become source of high-grade energy. Science Daily. (2011). Accessed May 30, 2012.

US Department of Energy. Hydrothermal Power Systems. Geothermal Technologies Program. (2010). Accessed May 30, 2012.

When no treaty was signed between the government, and no war was fought over the land, first nations groups in Canada are entitled to the land on which they have historically lived and still inhabit.
In solar thermal energy collectors, the Absorber Area refers to the area absorbing the radiation
A technique where acidic solutions are pumped into a well, melting away debris about the bottom of the well and allowing the gas to flow more freely.
An electrical current that reverses its direction at regularly recurring intervals. Abbreviated to AC.
A series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. Used for industrial and/or domestic purposes to manage waste and/or release energy.
A device used for measuring wind speed.
The average speed (and direction) of the wind over the course of a year.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC): A 21-nation group of Pacific-Rim nations that seeks to promote free trade, raise living standards, education levels and sustainable economic policies. Canada is a member.
The artificially increased discharge of water during the operation of hydroelectric turbines during periods of peak demand.
Small particles released into the atmosphere as part of the flue gases from a coal plant. Fly ash is dangerous for human health but most power plants use electrostatic precipitators to capture it before release.
The waters off the Atlantic provinces that has been producing oil and gas since the 1990s, and continues to have considerable untapped oil and gas potential. The region has similar geology to the oil-rich North Sea.
'The ionizing radiation which we are all inescapably exposed to every day. It comes from radon gas in the ground, the sun, distant supernovas, and even elements inside our own bodies. The average exposure is around 361 mrem per year for a person in Washington state (it varies by region).
Base-load power is that provided continuously, virtually year-round to satisfy a regions minimum electricity needs. Hydro and nuclear power are well-suited for base-load grid needs.
A renewable fuel in which soy or canola oil is refined through a special process and blended with standard diesel oil. Biodiesel does not contain ethanol, but research is underway to develop diesel blends with ethanol.
Renewable energy made available from materials derived from biological sources.
Natural gas, or methane, that is created by microbes consuming organic matter. Usually found near the Earths surface and is usually immediately released into the atmosphere.
Biological material from living, or recently living organisms such as trees, grasses, and agricultural crops. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other energy products such as biofuel.
A facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and chemicals from biomass. The biorefinery concept is analogous to petroleum refineries, which produce multiple fuels and products from petroleum.
Bitumen is "petroleum that exists in the semi-solid or solid phase in natural deposits. Bitumen is a thick, sticky form of crude oil, so heavy and viscous (thick) that it will not flow unless heated or diluted with lighter hydrocarbons. At room temperature, it is much like cold molasses."
Bottom Ash: Bottom ash are small particles that result from coal combustion, but unlike fly ash they are too heavy to be released into the atmosphere and must be stored.
Canadian Environmental Protection Act: Passed in 1999, CEPA is "An Act respecting pollution prevention and the protection of the environment and human health in order to contribute to sustainable development."
Cap and Trade: A system where the government sets a limit on how much of a pollutant may be emitted. It then sells the rights to emit that pollutant to companies, known as carbon credits, and allows them to trade the credits with other companies. The EU has implemented a cap and trade program for carbon dioxide.
Carbon Footprint: A calculation based on the set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organization, event, product, or person.
Carbon Sink: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores carbon-containing chemical compounds for an indefinite period.
Carbon Monoxide: A deadly gas produced from the tailpipe of cars that burn gasoline.
Capacity Factor: The ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time and its potential to output if it had operated at full nameplate capacity the entire time.
Cellulose: An organic compound consisting of several hundred to over ten thousand linked glucose units. Cellulose comprises the structural component of the cell wall in plants, many green algae. It is the most common organic compound on Earth comprising about 33% of plant matter.
Cellulosic Biomass: Fuel produced from wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of plants that is mainly comprised of cellulose.
Cellulosic Feedstock: The inedible cellulose which comprises most plants and trees. Yields are much higher as any part of the plant can be used and because they do not compete with food, therefore, cellulosic feedstock is an ideal candidate for large scale sustainable biofuel production.
Cetane Rating: Also known as cetane number (CN), this is a measurement of the combustion quality of diesel fuel during compression ignition. It is a significant expression of diesel fuel quality.
Clean Power Call: A request sent out by B.C. Hydro to private power utilities for new electricity-generating projects totalling 5,000 GWh/year. B.C. Hydro will help fund the successful projects and then buy power from them once completed.
How efficiently a turbine converts the energy in wind into electricity. Just divide the electrical power output by the wind energy input.
Using the energy left over from one primary energy conversion to fuel another. The most prominent example of this are natural gas co-generation plants which first feed fuel into a gas turbine. The residual heat from that reaction then heats water to spin a steam turbine.
Collector Area: In solar thermal energy collectors, the Collector Area refers to the area that intercepts the solar radiation.
A mixture of hydrocarbons present in natural gas. When gas is lowered below the hydrocarbon dew point, a condensate, that is, a liquid, forms. These can be used for combustion just like oil and gas. These are also known as natural gas liquids.
Generation of electricity using fossil fuels.
Gas reserves that form beneath porous layers of sandstone. Until recently this has been the only kind of gas commercially extracted.
When bituminous coal is baked at high temperatures it fuses together ash and carbon, creating coke. Coke can then be used to reduce the oxygen content of iron, strengthening it and creating steel.
A force generated by to the earths rotation which deflects a body of fluid or gas moving relative to the earths surface to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. It is at its maximum at the poles and zero at the equator.
Decentralized Electricity Generation: Decentralizated electricity generation is a concept used to describe a large number of dispersed energy generators, often closely integrated with the people that use the electricity. Wind turbines and solar panels are good examples: they can be put within communities, be owned by members of the community and generate electricity for it. Alternatively centralized energy generation, far more common in North America, is where a small number of large plants owned by utility companies (hydro-electric, nuclear or fossil fuel) generate large quantities of electricity.
The portion of the oil business that involves refining the crude oil, bringing it to market and selling it. Gasoline service stations are the most lucrative part of downstream operations.
Effluents: Gases or liquids released by a human-made structure, in this case flue gases from a coal-fired power plant.
Electrolyte: Usually a solution of acids, bases, or salts, electrolytes are substances with free ions which make them effective electrical conductors.
Electrolysis: A simple technique for splitting water atoms to obtain hydrogen, driven by an electrical current.
Requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment by automobiles and other powered vehicles, as well as emissions generated by industry, power plants, and small equipment.
Transforming one form of energy into another. Most energy conversions that run our economy are conversions from a primary source to electricity (wind or nuclear) or movement (oil).
Energy Currency: Energy that is usable for practical purposes. These include electricity and petroleum which power appliances and vehicles.
A measurement of the amount of energy stored in a given volume.
Energy Return On Investment (EROI): This is the ratio of usable energy obtained over the amount of energy required to get it. The oil sands has a low EROI because instead of being sucked out of the ground in liquid form the oil must be painstakingly mined and heavily refined, a process that requires large quantities of energy itself.
An energy source is the means by which energy is generated. The energy profiles each deal with a different source of energy, and most are simply means to attain the energy currency we all use: electricity.
Enhanced Geothermal System: A new technology, EGS does not require natural convective geothermal resources, but instead can draw power from the ground through extremely dry and impermeable rock.
The provincial Environmental Assessment Office is a politically neutral agency tasked with reviewing major construction projects in B.C. Their purview includes assessing the environmental, economic, social, heritage and health effects over the lifecycle of projects.
A blend of ethanol and diesel fuel. plus other additives, designed to reduce air pollution from heavy equipment, city buses and other vehicles that operate on diesel engines.
A policy device that encourages investment in renewable energies, usually by guaranteeing power producers that their energy will be bought.
In food processing, fermentation is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. In simple terms, fermentation is the chemical conversion of sugars to ethanol.
A finite, or non-renewable resource, is one where a limited amount exists. Once the existing stocks of that resource are exhausted there will be no more, at least in any reasonable human time scale. Only so much fossil fuels and uranium exist on earth, making these finite, non-renewableresources. The wind, sun and tides are renewable resources since it is impossible to run out of them.
First Generation Renewable: Well established renewable technologies that emerged early on in the Industrial Revolution. These include hydropower, biomass combustion and early geothermal power.
Fission is a nuclear reaction where a heavy atom is hit by a neutron, causing it to split into lighter atoms, release more neutrons, and huge amounts of energy.
Flat-plate collectors are a type of non-concentrating solar energy collector, typically used when temperatures are below 200 degrees F. They are often used for heating buildings.
Flex-Fuel Vehicle: Also known as a dual-fuel vehicle, this is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel.
Flue gases are the gases that are released into the atmosphere by a flue, or pipe, from the steam boiler.
Many biofuel feedstocks such as corn, sugarcane, and soybeans are also key sources of food for millions of people. Production of crops for bioenergy may displace other food-related crops, increasing the cost and decreasing the availability of food. The central question is one of ethics: Should we use our limited land resources to grow biofuels when the same land could be producing food for people?
Fracking: Hydraulic fracturing is the process of injecting high pressure fluids into deep, geologic formations, in order to fracture the rock and render it more permeable.
Fuel Crops: Crops grown specifically for their value as fuel to make biofuels or for their energy content.
Fumaroles: Openings in the Earths crust that emit steam and gases.
Gasohol: Otherwise known as fuel ethanol, gasohol has been distilled and dehydrated to create a high-octane, water free alcohol. All water must be removed because a water-alcohol mixture cannot dissolve in gasoline. Fuel ethanol is made unfit for drinking by adding a small amount of a noxious substance such as gasoline.
Geothermal Gradient: The rate at which temperature increases deeper into the earth, towards the earth's molten core.
Geothermal Task Force Team is a government program that aims to: develop policies, in collaboration with affected agencies, related to tenure issuance, examine the regulation of the use of geothermal resources not currently covered by legislation, build a royalty and resource rent model for geothermal resources, and develop a science based review of the known geothermal resources in the province.
Geyser: Springs characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam.
Giromill Turbine: Uses lift forces generated by vertical aerofoils to convert wind energy into rotational mechanical energy. They are powered by two or three vertical aerofoils attached to a central mast by horizontal supports.
Glut: A situation where the market has been flooded with goods and there is more supply than there is demand causing the price of goods to drop.
Gravity Survey: A technique of measuring minute changes in the Earths gravity field. This allows geologists to map lighter and denser rocks underground.
Green Energy and Green Economy Act of 2009: Legislation by the province of B.C. to boost the investment in renewable energy projects and increase conservation, create green jobs and economic growth in Ontario. Part of Ontario's plan to become a leading green economy in North America.
Head: The term head refers to the change in elevation of the water.
Head Differential: The difference in pressure due to the difference in height of water level.
Heat Exchangers: These are used in High-Temperature and Low-Temperature applications to transfer heat from one medium to another. In Low-Temperature Geoexchange systems they are built into the heat pump.
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT): Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. These are the most common types of wind turbines and look like aircraft propellers mounted atop towers.
Hydrocarbons: A compound of almost entirely hydrogen and carbon. This covers oil and natural gas. Coal, the third fossil fuel, contains so many impurities it is usually disqualified from this title.
Hydrostatic Head: The distance a volume of water has to fall in order to generate power.
Intermittent Energy Source: Any source of energy that is not continuously available due to a factor that is outside of direct control (ex. Wind speed or sunshine).
An internal combustion engine operates by burning its fuel inside the engine, rather than outside of it, as an external, or steam engine does. The most common internal combustion engine type is gasoline powered, followed by diesel, hydrogen, methane, and propane. Engines typically require adaptations (like adjusting the air/fuel ratio) to run on a different kind of fuel than they were designed for. Four-stroke internal combustion engines (each stroke marks a step in the combustion cycle) dominate the automotive and industrial realm today.
Kinetic Energy: The ability of water falling from a dam to do work, that is, to generate electricity. Water stored above a dam has potential energy which turns to kinetic energy once it begins to fall.
Levelized Cost of Electricity: The cost of generating electricity (capital, operation and maintenance costs). Measured in units of currency per unit of electricity (ex. kWh).
Magnetic Survey: A technique for measuring the intensity of magnetic fields from several stations.
Manhattan Project: The massive Anglo-American-Canadian scientific undertaking which produced the atomic bombs that helped end the Second World War. It marked the birth of the nuclear age and scientists were immediately aware of the potential to use use nuclear power for civilian use.
Market Penetration: The share of the total energy market a specific energy source has in relation to its competitors. So the market penetration of wind power would be measured by its share of the electricity market, while ethanol would be compared to other vehicle fuels, not to total primary energy use.
Matrix: In geology, this is the finer mass of tiny sediments in which larger sediments are embedded.
Methanol: Methanol is produced naturally in the anaerobic metabolism of many types of bacteria, and is ubiquitous in the environment. Methanol is toxic in humans if ingested or contacted on the skin. For its toxic properties and close boiling point with ethanol, that it is used as a denaturant for ethanol.
Miscanthus: A low maintenance perennial grass which is thought to be twice as productive as switch grass as it has a longer growing season, greater leaf area, and higher carbon storage per unit of leaf area.
MMBtu: A unit of measurement which means a million Btus (British thermal units). A Btu is roughly the amount of energy it takes to heat a half kilogram of water from 3.8 to 4.4 °C. MBtu is used for a thousand Btus.
Moderator: A moderator is used to slow down neutrons, which enables them to react with the atoms in the nuclear fuel. If enough atoms react then the reactor can sustain a nuclear chain reaction.
M Mount St. Helens is an active volcano located in Washington state. It is most famous for its catastrophic eruption on May 18, 1980 where fifty-seven people were killed, 250 homes, 47 bridges, 24 km of railways, and 298 km of highway were destroyed.
Mud-Pools: Pools of bubbling mud. Also known as "paint-pots" when the slurry of usually grey mud is streaked with red or pink spots from iron compounds.
Nacelle: The housing atop a wind turbine that holds the gearbox, generator, drive train and brakes, as well as the rotors.
Name-Plate Capacity: The intended full-load sustained output of a power plant. For example an average wind turbine's name-plate capacity is 2 Megawatts. The capacity factor is the actual output, so for that 2 MW wind turbine with an efficiency of around 30-35% (average) then it has a more realistic capacity of around 0.7 MW. Most power stations are listed in terms of their nameplate capacity.
National Energy Board: A regulatory agency established by the federal government in 1959 that is primarily tasked with regulating oil and gas pipelines that cross provincial and national borders.
National Energy Program: A set of policies enacted in 1980 that sought to make Canada energy independent. Petro-Canada was created and oil prices were kept artificially low to protect consumers. Shares of oil revenue were diverted to the federal government who used them mostly in the eastern provinces to offset a decline in manufacturing. The program was extremely unpopular in western Canada and was discontinued shortly thereafter.
Nuclear Renaissance: A term used by politicians and the media for the renewed interest in nuclear energy in the past decade. Many countries are now expanding their civilian nuclear programs.
Octane: The octane rating of a fuel is indicated on the pump – using numbers such as 87, 90, 91 etc. The higher the number, the greater the octane rating of the gasoline.
Oil in Place: The total hydrocarbon (oil and gas) content of a reservoir. Sometimes called STOOIP or Stock Tank Original Oil In Place.
Oil Patch: A term for the Canadian oil industry. This specifically means the upstream operations that find and extract oil and gas, mostly in Alberta but also B.C., the other prairie provinces, Newfoundland and Labrador.
Oil Window: The range of temperature at which oil forms. Below a certain temperature and kerogen will never progress to the form of oil. Too high and natural gas is formed instead.
OECD: The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development is a 34 country organization dedicated to advocating democracy and the market economy. Membership is largely limited to Western Europe, North America, Australia and Japan, what are often considered the world's developed nations. Sometimes referred to in the media as the "rich countries' club".
Passive Seismic Survey: A way to detect oil and gas by measuring the Earths natural low frequency movements.
Peak Power Demand: Power demand varies over minutes, hours, days and months. Peak power demand are the times when the most people are using the most power. To meet this demand extra sources of power must be switched on. Some forms of electricity generation, such as natural gas turbines, can be turned on quickly to meet peak power demand and are better suited for this purpose than others, such as nuclear, which are better as sources of baseload power.
Permeability: A measure of the ability of a porous rock to allow fluids to pass through it. High permeability in the surrounding rocks is needed for the formation of gas reserves.
Photovoltaic Cell: A non-mechanical device typically fabricated from silicon alloys that generates electricity from direct sunlight.
Pickens Plan: Investment of $1 trillion into wind power in the U.S.A., named for an American oil tycoon. The plan aims to reduce the amount of foreign oil imported to the U.S.A. while providing economic and environmental benefits.
Pondage: The main difference between small and large hydro projects is the existence of stored power in the form of water which is held back by dams at large hydro stations. Some small hydro projects have pondage, however, which are small ponds behind the weir of a dam which can store water for up to a week.
Potential Energy: The energy stored in a body or a system.
Porosity: Closely related to permeability, this is a measure of the amount of "voids," or empty space in a rock where gas or oil can pass through to collect in a reservoir.
Possible Reserves: Possible reserves are a class of unproven reserves that geologists use for oil that they are only 10% sure is present in the ground.
Purchasing Power Agreement: A contract between two parties, one who generates power for sale, and another who is looking to purchase it. B.C. Hydro buys power from companies that build their own power generating stations.
Primary Battery: A primary battery is one that is non-rechargable because the electrochemical reaction goes only one way. It gives out energy and cannot be reversed.
Primary Gas: The degeneration of decayed organic matter directly into gas through a process called "thermal cracking." This is opposed to secondary gas which is formed from decayed oil that has already formed.
Probable Reserves: Probable reserves are a class of unproven reserves that geologists use for oil or gas that they are at least 50% sure is actually present.
Proven Reserves: An amount of a resource any resource to be dug out of the ground (oil, coal, natural gas or uranium in energy terms) that geologists have a 90% or higher certainty can be extracted for a commercial gain with the technology available at the time."
Recompleted: The process, by which an old oil well is redrilled, fractured, or has some other technology applied to improve the amount of oil recovered.
Reforming: In oil refining, reforming is using heat to break down, or crack, hydrocarbon atoms and increase their octane level. This technique creates some left-over hydrogen which can be collected and used.
Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS): Law that requires electric utilities to produce some portion of their power from renewable sources like wind, solar, geothermal or biomass. RPSs are necessary to keep renewables competitive in an era of cheap natural gas electricity.
Rent-Seeking: The practice of using resources to compete for existing wealth rather than to create new wealth, often to the detriment of those who seek to reform societies or institutions. Economies that fail to diversify away from oil are often pre-dominated by a rent-seeking mind-set where people become more pre-occupied with securing the windfall resouce profits for themselves, usually oil, rather than seeking to develop new industries.
Reserves: The fraction of the oil in place that can be considered extractable. This depends not only on the geology, but the economics (is oil expensive enough to make extracting it profitable?) and technology.
Reserve Growth: When an oil or gas field is first discovered, reserve estimates tend to be low. The estimates of the size of the field are expected to grow over time and this is called reserves growth.
Ring of Fire: The Pacific Ring of Fire is a region of high volcanic and seismic activity that surrounds the majority of the Pacific Ocean. This region is essentially a horseshoe of geologic activity, characterized by volcanoes, earthquakes, deep sea trenches, and major fault zones.
Riparian: The term riparian refers to the wetland area surrounding rivers or streams. A riparian ecosystem refers to the biological community supported by an area around a river.
Savonius Turbine: Uses drag generated by the wind hitting the cup, like aerofoils, to create rotation.
Second Generation Wind Turbine: Technology that is only now beginning to enter the market as a result of research, development and demonstration. These are: solar, wind, tidal, advanced geothermal and modern bioenergy. Much hope has been placed upon these technologies but they still provide only a fraction of our energy.
Secondary Battery: Rechargable batteries are sometimes known as secondary batteries because their electro-chemical reactions can be reversed.
Secondary Gas: When oil is subjected to so much heat and pressure it degenerates into gas. The process through which this happens called "thermal cracking."
Secondary Recovery Schemes: When so much oil has been sucked out of an oil reservoir it will lose pressure and the oil will no longer flow out of the reservoir from natural pressure. When this happens secondary recovery schemes can be employed. This means that fluids or gases are pumped into the well to increase pressure and push the remaining oil up out of the well.
Shale: A type of sedimentary rock with low permeability, which was once thought to prevent any commercial extraction of the gas inside. Fracking allows gas developers to access it.
Sound Navigation and Ranging (SONAR): Initially devised as a technique for detecting submarines. An emitter sends off pulses of sound. The pulses bounce off objects and return to a receiver which interprets their size and distance.
Spot Market: A market where commodities are traded for immediate delivery. A future market on the other hand is one where delivery is expected later on. Because of the dependence of gas users on those who are at the other end of the gas pipeline, the natural gas market is mostly a futures market.
Steam Coal: Steam coal is coal used for power generation in thermal power plants. This is typically coal that ranges in quality from sub-bituminous to bituminous.
Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO): Vegetable oil fuel. Most diesel engine vehicles can run on it so long as the viscosity of the oil is lowered enough for complete combustion. Failure to do this can damage the engine. SVO is also known as pure plant oil or PPO.
Strategic Petroleum Reserve: An emergency store of oil maintained by some governments and corporations. The U.S. Department of Energy holds 727 million barrels of oil.
Subcritical Power Plant: A coal-fired power plant that operates at less than 550ËšC. Because the temperatures and pressures are than other plants, these plants operate at a low efficiency, around 33-35%. These plants are still the most common in the world and many are under construction
Supercritical Power Plant: Supercritical plants are coal powered power plants that can sustain temperatures of 550ËšC to 590ËšC and transfer up to 40% of the coals energy into power. This technology has only come into use in recent years. Most new coal-fired power plants built in the West are supercritical.
Switchgrass: One of the dominant native species of the North American prairies, tallgrass is being researched as a renewable bioenergy crop. It is a a native perennial warm season grass with the ability to produce moderate to high yields on marginal farmlands.
Thermal Power Plant: A thermal power plant is any that is powered by a steam turbine. The steam is created by heating water which in turn spins the turbine. Most coal and gas power stations operate in this way, as do all nuclear plants. Coal powered and gas plants are often just called thermal plants.
Total Carbon Cost: The amount of carbon dioxide emitted during an action or a process. One exmaple is building a natural gas plant. The total carbon cost would include everything from the carbon emitted to get the materials to build the plant, to the carbon emitted in the building of the plant, and the carbon emitted during the operation of the plant.
Unconventional Gas: Unconventional gas reserves come in many different geological formations, and include tight gas, shale gas, coalbed methane and methane hydrates. Extraction of these sources has only just begun and has hugely extended the lives of many gas fields and unlocking many new ones. The unlocking of unconventional gas reserves in the last five years has revolutionized the global energy system.
Ultracritical Power Plant: These are coal thermal power plants that operate above 590ËšC and can attain efficiencies above 40%. These plants are just coming into service.
Undiscovered Reserves: The amount of oil and gas estimated to exist in unexplored areas. Much of B.C. has not been thoroughly explored for fossil fuel potential and many of the estimates of B.C. fossil fuel resources rely on the concept of undiscovered resources
United States Geological Survey (USGS): The United States Geological Survey. The department responsible for estimating American fossil fuel reserves. They also conduct many studies that span the globe.
Unproven Reserves: Oil reserves in the ground that petroleum geologists are less certain are there, but have strong reason to believe is present. Unproven reserves can be broken down into probable reserves and possible reserves. These numbers are used within oil companies but not usually published.
The portion of the oil business that involves finding oil and extracting it.
Uranium is a heavy metal that is naturally radioactive. An isotope, U-235 can be enriched to support a nuclear chain reaction. Uranium is used in many nuclear power plants.
A 2,730 MW dam built in north-eastern British Columbia along the Peace River during the 1960s.
Any activity where humans bore down into the Earth to access reserves of oil or gas trapped in underground geological formations.
These are produced from wood residue (like sawdust) collected from sawmills and wood product manufacturers. Heat and pressure are used to transform wood residue into pellets without chemical additives, binders or glue. The pellets can be used in stoves and boilers.
A remote mountain in Western Nevada where the U.S. Department of Energy has planned on storing all of the country's spent nuclear fuel underground since the 1990s. The proposal met stiff opposition from local residents and in 2009 the project was cancelled.
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